✍ Written by: Imran Ayyub Lahori
After the passing of the Messenger of Allah ﷺ, the leadership of the Muslim Ummah (the Khilāfah) was entrusted to the most righteous and capable companions.
The method of their selection varied according to circumstances but was always rooted in consultation (shūrā), consensus (ijmā‘), and public allegiance (bay‘ah).
After the Prophet ﷺ passed away, the Ansār gathered at Saqīfah Banī Sā‘idah to discuss the appointment of a leader.
When the Muhājirīn — led by ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه and Abū ʿUbaydah ibn al-Jarrāḥ رضي الله عنه — joined them, a discussion ensued.
Ultimately, ʿUmar رضي الله عنه, the Ahl al-Ḥall wa al-ʿAqd (the people of decision), and then the entire Muslim community pledged allegiance (bay‘ah) to Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه as the first caliph.
[Al-Bukhārī: 5/7; Tārīkh al-Ṭabarī: 3/199; Ṭabaqāt Ibn Sa‘d: 3/179]
Before his death, Abū Bakr رضي الله عنه — after consultation with senior companions — personally nominated ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه as his successor.
He publicly announced this decision, and the Muslims pledged allegiance to ʿUmar رضي الله عنه after the death of Abū Bakr رضي الله عنه.
[Al-Bukhārī; Tārīkh al-Islām by Dr. Ḥasan Ibrāhīm: 1/254]
When ʿUmar رضي الله عنه was on his deathbed, he appointed a Shūrā council of six companions to select the next caliph from among themselves.
These were:
① ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنه
② ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān رضي الله عنه
③ ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿAwf رضي الله عنه
④ Al-Zubayr ibn al-ʿAwwām رضي الله عنه
⑤ Ṭalḥah ibn ʿUbayd Allāh رضي الله عنه
⑥ Saʿd ibn Abī Waqqāṣ رضي الله عنه
After deliberation and consultation with the people of Madinah, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿAwf رضي الله عنه proposed ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān رضي الله عنه, and all agreed upon him.
Thus, ʿUthmān رضي الله عنه was chosen as the third caliph of Islam.
[Tārīkh al-Ṭabarī: 3/199; Al-Tamhīd by al-Bāqillānī, p. 208]
After the martyrdom of ʿUthmān رضي الله عنه, a great turmoil arose within the Muslim community.
In these turbulent circumstances, the senior Muhājirīn and Anṣār of Madinah pledged allegiance to ʿAlī رضي الله عنه.
However, the people of Shām (Syria) and the Banū Umayyah did not initially give their bay‘ah, resulting in divisions and conflicts.
Therefore, the caliphate of ʿAlī رضي الله عنه — though legitimate — did not enjoy the same universal consensus (ijmā‘) as that of his predecessors.
[Tārīkh al-Ṭabarī: 3/199; Ṭabaqāt Ibn Sa‘d: 3/179; Al-Bukhārī: 5/7; Tārīkh al-Islām al-Siyāsī by Dr. Ḥasan Ibrāhīm: 1/254; Al-Tamhīd by al-Bāqillānī, p. 208]
✿ Introduction
After the passing of the Messenger of Allah ﷺ, the leadership of the Muslim Ummah (the Khilāfah) was entrusted to the most righteous and capable companions.
The method of their selection varied according to circumstances but was always rooted in consultation (shūrā), consensus (ijmā‘), and public allegiance (bay‘ah).
◈ ① Election of Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه
After the Prophet ﷺ passed away, the Ansār gathered at Saqīfah Banī Sā‘idah to discuss the appointment of a leader.
When the Muhājirīn — led by ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه and Abū ʿUbaydah ibn al-Jarrāḥ رضي الله عنه — joined them, a discussion ensued.
Ultimately, ʿUmar رضي الله عنه, the Ahl al-Ḥall wa al-ʿAqd (the people of decision), and then the entire Muslim community pledged allegiance (bay‘ah) to Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq رضي الله عنه as the first caliph.
[Al-Bukhārī: 5/7; Tārīkh al-Ṭabarī: 3/199; Ṭabaqāt Ibn Sa‘d: 3/179]◈ ② Nomination of ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه
Before his death, Abū Bakr رضي الله عنه — after consultation with senior companions — personally nominated ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb رضي الله عنه as his successor.
He publicly announced this decision, and the Muslims pledged allegiance to ʿUmar رضي الله عنه after the death of Abū Bakr رضي الله عنه.
[Al-Bukhārī; Tārīkh al-Islām by Dr. Ḥasan Ibrāhīm: 1/254]◈ ③ Selection of ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān رضي الله عنه
When ʿUmar رضي الله عنه was on his deathbed, he appointed a Shūrā council of six companions to select the next caliph from among themselves.
These were:
① ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنه
② ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān رضي الله عنه
③ ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿAwf رضي الله عنه
④ Al-Zubayr ibn al-ʿAwwām رضي الله عنه
⑤ Ṭalḥah ibn ʿUbayd Allāh رضي الله عنه
⑥ Saʿd ibn Abī Waqqāṣ رضي الله عنه
After deliberation and consultation with the people of Madinah, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿAwf رضي الله عنه proposed ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān رضي الله عنه, and all agreed upon him.
Thus, ʿUthmān رضي الله عنه was chosen as the third caliph of Islam.
[Tārīkh al-Ṭabarī: 3/199; Al-Tamhīd by al-Bāqillānī, p. 208]◈ ④ Bay‘ah of ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib رضي الله عنه
After the martyrdom of ʿUthmān رضي الله عنه, a great turmoil arose within the Muslim community.
In these turbulent circumstances, the senior Muhājirīn and Anṣār of Madinah pledged allegiance to ʿAlī رضي الله عنه.
However, the people of Shām (Syria) and the Banū Umayyah did not initially give their bay‘ah, resulting in divisions and conflicts.
Therefore, the caliphate of ʿAlī رضي الله عنه — though legitimate — did not enjoy the same universal consensus (ijmā‘) as that of his predecessors.
[Tārīkh al-Ṭabarī: 3/199; Ṭabaqāt Ibn Sa‘d: 3/179; Al-Bukhārī: 5/7; Tārīkh al-Islām al-Siyāsī by Dr. Ḥasan Ibrāhīm: 1/254; Al-Tamhīd by al-Bāqillānī, p. 208]✿ Summary of the Caliphs’ Selection Methods
| Caliph | Method of Selection | Main Feature |
|---|---|---|
| Abū Bakr رضي الله عنه | Through consultation and bay‘ah at Saqīfah | Immediate community consensus |
| ʿUmar رضي الله عنه | Direct nomination by Abū Bakr | Appointed before death with public approval |
| ʿUthmān رضي الله عنه | Election by a Shūrā council of six | Collective decision by senior companions |
| ʿAlī رضي الله عنه | Bay‘ah by the people of Madinah | Occurred amidst civil strife, partial acceptance |
Conclusion
- The selection of the Khulafā’ al-Rāshidīn was based on consultation, consensus, and public allegiance, not monarchy or inheritance.
- Each caliph was appointed in a legitimate Shar‘ī manner, reflecting the unity and participation of the early Muslim community.
- This historical model demonstrates that Islamic leadership must be grounded in justice, consultation, and the consent of the Ummah, not personal ambition or dynastic rule.
